Dish Rationale-an Overview of a Bread and Pastry Practical

Stretching back through history, bread has played a crucial role as the staple food of many Western countries. This said however, evidence of bread in Britain wasn’t significantly apparent until 55BC when Romans invaded, bringing with them; complex bakery techniques, watermills and mechanical dough mixers. Such progression in the industry stemmed from the foundation of the first Guild of Bakers in 150BC Rome.Interestingly enough, it was white bread which became sought after by Roman aristocracy of the time and although it is still the bread of choice for many consumers in Western societies, its value and association with social class has greatly declined. Despite such rapid development, Grains were first harvested by Egyptians in 8000BC and were crushed by hand using what we would recognise today as a pestle and mortar. All bread was unleavened as raising agents such as yeast were yet to be introduced. Bread production began to develop along the fertile banks of the Nile and b y 3000BC, baking bread had become a skill.Due to the warm climate, natural yeasts became attracted to the multi grain flour combinations which were used at the time, and so bakers began experimenting with leavened dough. With the invention of the closed oven, bread established its place as part of a cuisine and at its peak, was used as currency (Bakers Federation. 2012). As the Egyptians had become such experts at not only baking bread, but growing the grains required for its production, they began selling their excess to Greece, and by osmosis, the Romans learnt from the Greeks.Returning to an earlier point, by the time that Britain really learnt the potential of baking bread, there were already 258 bakery shops open for business in Rome, with public ovens in the streets, for citizens to bake their own bread in (Yoward. T. 2012). Perhaps this was the first example of bread production on a large scale, little did the Romans of that denomination realise the turn which the 20th Centur y would bring to the production of the commercial bread Loaf. It was the work of scientists at the Chorleywood Flour Milling and Bakery Research Laboratories which brought about a change for Britain’s living in the 1960’s.By adding hard fats such as butter as well as various chemicals to the bread and mixing it quickly, bread which was ready to bake quickly and would stay fresh for longer could be produced. The process was so successful that 80% of the bread in the UK is produced by the Chorley process (News Magazine. 2011). Such manufacture together with gas ovens created mass quantities of bread at a low price; hence the homogenous white sliced loaf has spread worldwide. Such an increasing demand for white bread began to take its toll on smaller independent bakers with many of them being forced into liquidation or facing take over.The first Bread brand to grace the UK market was Wonder Bread, a name suited to the post war affluence which was sweeping the country. The term ‘Bread winner’ came to refer to the man or women who worked to earn a wage, such focus on the importance of this commodity was not unlike the high regards which the Egyptians held during the times of antiquity. With regard to the display of bread which was produced for the assessment, there were influencing factors behind the choice of dough’s and flavour variations.A starting point was the style of bread which I wanted to be reflected through the display. Despite an average artisan bread roll being as much as twice as expensive as the standard sliced white loaf, demand for better quality bread is on the rise. It would be easy to mistake this cultural shift as applicable to the more affluent societies of Britain, but as research shows, it is the middle class who are greatly contributing to the bulk of consumers who are purchasing for quality rather than quantity. Figures suggest that a bread revolution is far from close, but where 80% of the ? . 4bn worth o f bread which is produced every year is sliced white loaves, the niche of master bakers which currently occupy only 5% of the market, have room to grow (Rigby. R. 2010). Another important influence on the market, and one which was reflected by the choice of breads in the display, is that of flavour, ingredients, and recipes from abroad. Despite an economic depression, many Brits can still afford to venture overseas on holiday and often return to the UK wanting to experience the cuisine of the county which they have visited.Suddenly, a demand for continental bread exists within the British market. The diagram shows both; the dough’s which featured in the display and the variety of flavours which provided originality as well as a balance between sweet and savoury. Brioche (Enriched Dough)| White Bun Dough| Plain Brioche Bun| Sesame & Poppy Seed| Double Chocolate Baton| Sun Dried Tomato & Olive| Toasted Almond & Vanilla| Cottage Loaf| Toffee Apple & Pecan| Smoked Bacon & Maldon Sea Salt|Stilton & Walnut| Goats Cheese & Caramelised Red Onion| Apricot & Honey| Roasted Garlic & Parsley| Many of the flavour combinations which featured took influence from the Mediterranean; from Greece, Italy and from France. These are countries which were highlighted as being popular tourist destinations and so are likely to have influence on the UK Bread market. There is a broad range of dishes which these breads could be served with; soups, entrees such as tapenade or as individual snack items to perhaps be enjoyed with a coffee or over breakfast.Nutrition is affecting the growing demand for artisan breads. For the majority of loaves produced using the Chorleywood process, cheap varieties of Wheat are used, these tend to be low in protein, vitamins and minerals. By contrast, the better quality wheat, which is by and largely used in smaller bakery operations, has a protein content of between 8 and 13%. Elements of the grain such as the germ, endosperm and kernel are also rich in vitamins B and E, as well as a range of minerals.Although a focus on nutrition is perhaps less relevant to the breads which featured in the display, Brioche and White Bun Dough, as Brioche is high in fat and a very luxurious bread originally baked by the Romans as a sweet holiday bread. It is also often served as a pastry, a very popular feature of breakfast for many consumers, or as an element to a dessert (La Gourmandise. 2012). White bread, as has already been touched on, often has a similar nutrient content to that of wholemeal or granary breads, as the table highlights.To briefly analyse the data below, the white flour which was used in both recipes, is comprised of both insoluble and soluble non starch polysaccharide (NSP), as well as high levels of carbohydrate (Bake info. 2012). As well as nutrition, the appearance of the bread display was perhaps the overriding factor when deciding on dough, flavours and shapes. As the images below show, the addition of sugar in the Bri oche dough, and egg as a glaze on the white bun dough helped to create a glossy golden brown finish when the bread was baked.This is due to a chemical process called the maillard reaction. Such a reaction occurs when carbohydrates in the bread combine with the proteins in egg at temperatures of at least 100? C. For the reaction to occur successfully, moisture in the bread has to be of average proportion, as if the dough is too wet the reaction will be inhibited. Often the maillard reaction contributes to flavour as well, distinctively this flavour tends to be nutty (Forbes. P. 2003).The range of flavourings helped to further produce a variety of colours whilst complex shapes added visual appeal to the display Below are the two recipes which helped me to create the breads. Brioche Dough| Strong White Flour| 1000g| Caster Sugar| 100g| Fresh Yeast| 60g| Eggs| 300g (Beaten)| Whole Milk| 235g| Unsalted Butter| 200g| Salt| 20g| Enriching the dough with Butter helps to create an almost cak e like texture, whilst being moist and light. It also contributes to the colour of the bread and produces a rich Buttery flavour which compliments the sweetness.The use of Sugar in the recipe also contributes to the colour as caramelisation takes place when the dough is cooked. White Bun Dough| Strong White Flour| 1000g| Caster Sugar| 84g| Salt| 20g| Olive Oil| 50g| Fresh yeast| 70g| Water| 550ml| With regard to the white bun dough, the use of Strong White Flour suggests that the gluten content is high and so an elastic, layered texture can be achieved. Sugar is required in the bread, as with any bread, to provide the Yeast with food which helps it multiply and grow.The addition of Olive Oil coats each strand of Gluten in a thin film, this means that a lighter, softer dough can be achieved as the gluten will not set as hard when cooled as with a dough which doesn’t have Oil in it. And so to summarise the success of the Bread display, which was produced, it is noticeable that a wide range of both shapes and flavours was produced, and the two dough’s both complimented and contrasted each other. A range of skill was displayed and if the display were to be created again, perhaps a wider variety could be included.Feedback suggested that the flavours showed a good variation and the textures of the breads were as they should have been. Below are some photos which display the bread as it was at the end of the practical assessment. References Bakers Federation. 2012. The Federation of Bakers. London Accessed on: 15/11/12 Taken From: http://www. bakersfederation. org. uk/the-bread-industry/history-of-bread. html Yoward. T. 2012. Hampshire Mills Group Accessed on 15/11/12 Taken From: http://www. hampshiremills. org/snippets%20history%20of%20bread. htm News Magazing. 2011.BBC News Accessed on 20/11/12 Taken From: http://www. bbc. co. uk/news/magazine-13670278 Rigby. R. 2010. Management Today Accessed on 21/11/12 Taken from: http://www. managementtoday. co. u k/news/1042696/Wheres-dough-artisan-bread/ La Gourmandise. 2012 Accessed on 22/11/12 Taken from: http://www. lagourmandise. net/history. htm Bake info. 2012 Accessed on 22/11/2012 Taken from: http://www. bakeinfo. co. nz/Facts/Nutrition/Nutrition Forbes. P. 2003. The Guardian Accessed on 22/11/2012 Taken from: http://www. guardian. co. uk/science/2003/jan/23/science. research

Observation Log 2 Language Development Education Essay

The following theory I considered in my observation is the linguistic communication developmental theory and the theories are those by Chomsky, Piaget and Vygotsky. I believe linguistic communication is an of import portion in human development because it a major medium of societal interaction. Harmonizing to Beckett and Taylor ( ) , the vocabulary of kids between the ages of 3 to 6 expands from 2 word sentence to more complex sentences. They believe that as the kids ‘s vocabulary addition, they learn the regulations of grammar and they become able to utilize different signifiers of words. Whilst I was detecting Eva, I noticed that most of the clip she responded with non verbal communicating and it made me more interested on how linguistic communication develops. Chomsky ( 1957 ) believed that sentences are routinely created practically every clip. He believed that we have internal regulations that enable us to make up one's mind which sentences are grammatical correct and convey our intended significances. Chomsky believed that kids have unconditioned abilities, a familial plan to larn linguistic communication and one time they begin to hear linguistic communication around them, they automatically understand the construction of that linguistic communication. He argued that this is because of the biological temperaments, encephalon development and cognitive preparedness. His theory emphasises the demand for linguistic communication in the environment to excite kids ‘s innate abilities. ( Crain 2005 ) Vygotsky identified four different phases of address development which are the crude, naif psychological phase from 2 to 4 old ages. The kid in this phase is get downing to gain that words are symbols for objects. They have a great wonder as to what objects are called. Followed by the egoistic or private address phase from 4 to 7 old ages. Children frequently talk aloud to themselves as they perform undertakings or work out jobs in this phase of development. This private address is the kid ‘s presentation of their thought. And in conclusion the in growing or interior speech phase from 8 old ages on. During this phase the kids ‘s private address diminutions and becomes much more internalised. They solve jobs in their caputs or utilizing interior address, nevertheless you will hear people utilizing private address when faced with unusual or complex jobs ( Nixon and Aldwinckle, 2003 ) . continues until kids reach school age. Piaget and Chomsky both agreed that kids are non moulded by the external environment but spontaneously create mental constructions. Chomsky believed that kids automatically create grammatical signifiers harmonizing to the familial design and in contrast, Piaget emphasised on genetically controlled development and believed that cognitive constructions emerge from the kid ‘s ain attempt to cover with and do sense of the universe. Chomsky besides believed that linguistic communication is a extremely specialized mental module that develops fairy independently from other signifiers of knowledge and kids learn an intricate grammatical system about wholly on their ain. However, Piaget viewed linguistic communication as more closely related to general cognitive development. Piaget besides suggested that between the ages of 2 and 6, thin Harmonizing to Piaget ‘s theory, kids are born with basic action scheme and during the sensory-motor period ( birth to 2 old ages ) they use these action scheme to absorb information about the universe. He described two maps of kids ‘s linguistic communication, therefore the egoist and the socialized. During the sensory-motor period, kids ‘s linguistic communication is egoistic and they talk either for themselves or for the pleasance of tie ining anyone who happens to be at that place with the activity of the minute. Piaget suggested that during the preoperational phase this period ( 2 and 7 old ages ) , kids ‘s linguistic communication makes rapid advancement. The development of their mental scheme lets them rapidly suit new words and state of affairss and they begin to build simple sentences. ( Appendix aˆÂ ¦ . ) Piaget ‘s theory describes kids ‘s linguistic communication as symbolic, leting them to venture beyond what he termed as here and now and get down to to speak approximately things as the yesteryear, the hereafter, people, feelings and events. During this clip, kids ‘s linguistic communication frequently shows cases of what Piaget termed animism and egoism. Animism refers to immature kids ‘s inclination to see everything, including inanimate objects, to be alive. Since they see things strictly from their ain position, kids ‘s linguistic communication besides reflects their egoism, whereby they attribute phenomena with the same feelings and purposes as their ain. Piaget ‘s theory besides describes moral pragmatism as a feature of kids ‘s linguistic communication development at this phase, since immature kids tend to concentrate on the extent of any harm caused by a individual ‘s actions, without taking into history whether that individual had good or bad purposes. Language development trades with how a kid develops his/her linguistic communication accomplishments during their growing period. Language development has been an issue debated among linguistic communication experts over a long period of clip. Experts have opposing positions on how a kid acquires/learns linguistic communication. There are four chief theories of linguistic communication development and they all have different ideas on the acquisition of linguistic communication. Behaviorists ( Skinner ) believe that linguistic communication is learned. Nativists ( Chomsky ) believe that linguistic communication is unconditioned and alone to worlds. Cognitive theoreticians ( Piaget ) believe linguistic communication is non unconditioned but a merchandise of cognitive development. Finally, societal interactionists ( Vygotsky ) believe that linguistic communication acquisition is a consequence of both biological and environmental factors. All of these theories have their ain manner of co nstruing linguistic communication development, and to some extent, they all seem to be extremely converting. However, out of the four theories, the societal interactionist position entreaties to me the most ; so my theory of linguistic communication development is decidedly the societal interactionist position. Unlike Piaget, Vygotski considered linguistic communication to be cardinal to development. Although Piaget acknowledged linguistic communication with development with footings such as ‘egocentric address ‘ , he did non believe it prevailing, stating it was due to the kid ‘s inability to believe from another position. Vygotski nevertheless, believed speaking out loud gives the kid a manner to form their ideas and steer their actions. Research has shown, kids who use ‘egocentric ‘ or ‘private address ‘ show greater betterment on job work outing undertakings than others who do non utilize or less private address. Probes into this topic, has besides shown that Vygotski ‘s sentiment on kids ‘s address is a much better description than Jean piagets Piaget and Vygotsky are in understanding that kids are active scholars. They contribute to their ain development. This means that kids build ways of groking the universe, ( cognition and apprehension ) , through their activities. They differ in the attack that kids take to organizing these. Piaget provinces that it happens chiefly through physical use of objects around them. Vygotsky, that it is socially mediated. Harmonizing to Crain ( ) , between the ages of 2 and 3, kids begin to do sentences of three or more words and between 3 and 6 old ages their grammar becomes complex. They start to utilize Where, What, Why, for illustration, â€Å" What is that? † ( Appendix aˆÂ ¦ . )

The Effects of Long and Short Term Stress

The Effects of Long and Short Term Stress Teresa Mcilwain PS2150-3 Emry Somnarain October 21, 2012 What does the term Stress mean? Stress is a term used in many different ways. Stress also can refer to events and circumstances, also examinations that can cause unease; to the specific body responses to such events, like Rapid heartbeat; or the mind's and body's try to deal with in order to recapture a sense of wellness.Stoklos defines stress as  a state of imbalance within a person, drawing out by actual or bought on different enviromental demands and the person's capacity to cope the demands†   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   What is the Effect of Short Term Stress? Short-term stress or acute stress is your reaction to an immediate threat. Divorce or sometime as simple as a deadline is a threat . This is kno wn as â€Å"fight or flight† response. The body is effected by stress is sleep disturbances.Insomnia is one form of sleep disorder. Short- term stress can be back pain, shoulder, or neck pain, Stress can even cause tension or migraine headaches. Depending on the nature of stress, you could experience rashes and hives or even hair loss. Your feet and hands may get cold as your blood flow is redirected from your skin to your heart. Shortness of breath may occur, if you have a touch of asthma and can cause asthma attacks. There are many more ways that stress can effects the body.What are the Long Term effects of Stress? Long-Term stress is the same as chronic stress has been defined by Pearlin as â€Å"the relatively enduring Problems and, conflicts and threats that people face in their daily lives. † The most known bases for this type of stress are family problems with spouse, parents, or children; love or sex problems; job related or s can  break down your immune syst em and make you very vulnerable to infection, including cold and flu symptoms.Prolonged stress can cause then you can suffer from Digestive problems, like constipation and diarrhea. Most people that have lots of stress turn to eating that end up being obese problems; and any other competitive involvement. Long-stress GREGORY L. WEISS, LYNNE E. LONNQUIST,. The Sociology of Health, Healing, and Illness BYESTRESS,htt://www. byestress. com/byestress-articles/effects-0f-stress-on-the-body. htm

Australia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Australia - Essay Example Despite these, Australia comes out a host of other diversified cultural practices. When meeting a person for the first time, the person is greeted with the right hand and people who are known to each other do not kiss and even hug when meeting; but talk generally about personal matters. Australian day, Anzac Day, Melbourne Cup Day, are some of the days that have national meaning in Australia. There are various ways in which the Australians behave in their day-to-day life as a society. Australia being a multicultural country encourages everyone to maintain and practice his/her cultural beliefs as it respects the rights of other individuals to do the same. Words such as â€Å"thank you† and â€Å"please† are used to show polite behavior; slang is also common among the Australians. There are no laws to govern the way an individual should dress although one has to wear specific clothes during the time of work. Invitations are usually spoken or written and when one is invited to an event, the individual responds via phone call or a

Issues Related to GMOs Consumption Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Issues Related to GMOs Consumption - Essay Example The information regarding the safety of use of GM food is present in abundance. There are various publications, blog posts, journals articles and reports that shed a light on the subject. Naturally, the opinions are split in half with supporters and opponents of genetic engineering presenting their arguments and claiming their superiority. Presented below are the references for both sides of the debate. Pro-GMO sources. The Genetically Modified Foods: Harmful or Helpful? by Debora Whitman is the general and detailed overview of the current state of affairs regarding genetic engineering of foods and general reaction to it. The author presumes that genetically modified crops may represent the most robust solutions to the current food crisis. Yet, it will pose numerous challenges both scientific and ethical when developing a proper systematic approach to GMO in food. The main benefits and goals of genetic modification of crops are mentioned as well allowing the reader to develop a bette r understanding of a broader scope of the event. Whitman concludes that genetically modified foods do represent a solution to many problems and that their safety should be evaluated in each case and not by the merits of general assumptions.   The report The Safety of Genetically Modified Foods Produced through Biotechnology delivered by the Society of Toxicology and published in the Toxicological Science journal gradually explains academic standards and procedures used to examine genetically modified foods.

The Benifits of Quality Early Childhood Education by using curriculum Thesis Proposal

The Benifits of Quality Early Childhood Education by using curriculum and literature - Thesis Proposal Example Last four decades witnessed an increasing attention directed to the education of children who are under five (Barnett & Boocock, 1998). With ongoing changes in family structures and lifestyles, the number of children who are cared for by someone other than a parent has steadily increased. On the basis of information provided by Barnett and Boocock, estimates suggest that almost 65 percent of mothers with preschool children are in the labor force. In 1995, 59 percent of all preschool-aged children within the US were in preschool care and education programs on a regular basis, including 67 percent of three-year-olds and 77 percent of four-year-olds (Hofferth, Shauman, Henke, & West, 1998). According to the study carried out by West, Denton, and Germino-Hausken (1998), US Department of Education (Doe) found that 80 percent of all children beginning kindergarten in the fall of 1998 had been in child care on a regular basis, and about half continued to be in child care before or after sch ool. Suggesting that, currently, the vast majority of children within the US spend much of their day away from their parents, with most attending a center-based preschool program prior to kindergarten. As reported by Yarosz and Barnett (2001), center-based preschool programs in 1999, were frequently attended by preschoolers throughout the US, with program participation at 70% at age four and 45% at age three. As described by Yarosz and Barnett, center-based programs are mostly labeled as child care, preschool, day care, and nursery school and are operated under a number of different auspices, including churches, independent non-profit, for-profits, public schools, and Head Start. According to West, Hausken, and Collins (1993), regardless of how preschool programs are described and labeled, most parents perceive such programs as educational. Further explained by Yarosz and Barnett, augmentation in parental education as well as income is directly related to an increase in the rate of enrollment and participation of children in preschool programs. The finding holds true with greater government support for programs targeting children in low-income families (example Title XX or Child Care Works). Additionally, as reported by Yarosz and Barnett, findings suggests that parents are less likely to enroll children under three in center-based programs, as parents tend to view infant and toddler care as less likely to influence later educational outcomes. Moreover, the implementation of preschool programs in public schools has recently increased. According to information provided by the National Center for Education Statistics (NCES)

Leadership Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Leadership Development - Essay Example Companies do have Training and Development programmes for lower level management. There is evidence of Mentoring but when it comes to placing the women at the top side by side with the men there appears to be a lack of confidence. Is it created by men only or are the women responsible for it too? It is firmly believed that Training and Development within a company is important as it Improves individual’s performance and therefore the company as a whole benefits from reduced performance problems and it can motivate the staff so they will be more productive. The question is why it does not translate into more women rising to the top? This is an obvious case of discrimination. But, at whose hand? The men, or the women, or both? 2.1 Development of Source Materials Having raised the above questions, the quest now began for finding materials to find answers. This has been a highly debated question over the past decades and there was ample material about it both in the Library as well as on the World Wide Web. The entire group divided the responsibility amongst themselves the responsibility of finding answers to the above questions. Several models of this process were examined with the help of various journals and writings of eminent personalities to arrive at a consensus of how to find answers to the above questions. The team went through the material meticulously to locate the answers from a maze of diverse views. 2.2 Application of Source Material

Alexandria Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Alexandria - Research Paper Example To add to this, they had no navigation tools and only used stars and eyesight for knowing directions. The light house thus formed a major point of showing directions to travellers in the region during both the day and the night (Stokes 67). Sostracus was a Greek architect from Asia in a minor city of Cnidus (Hamilton 21). During the construction, he wanted to put the king’s name alongside his name on the great art of the light house but his request was not granted by the pharaoh at the time, Ptolemy. Sostracus then decided to play a trick on the king by first carving his own carving bearing his name a task which he did with a lot of artistic design. He then made the kings carving which was made from mere plaster (Hamilton 29). With time the plaster washed away and left only his own carving which reads ‘Sostratos of Cnidus, son of Dexiphanes, to the savior gods, for sailors’. This is a show of how creative Sostracus was with his artistic designs. He had skills to e nable him do anything. This essay thus tries to analyze and discuss all the artistic styles and symbolism he used as an artist. It gives why he chose to use the specific artistic styles and their symbolism in the work (Stokes 77). The light house was built on a very large space. ... This is evident from the fact that with time the name lighthouse started to represent the name pharos. Travellers now referred to pharaoh as the light house. The large base area of the light house showed the stability of the king’s council and the large army he had for security purposes. It also shows the stability of the trade he was conducting at the city. The light house was built to enable guide traders to the Alexandria city for trade purposes. Being huge was also a representation of the massive trade and money at the place. This thus attracted a lot of people at the place. The lighthouse was also very tall (Doak 85). Being tall was a representation of how far their power can go. Their power included monetary value and the fierce army they had (Stokes 55). Considering the material used in the building of the light house; white marble. It is a representation of the peaceful nature of the country. Being white shows that the trade transacted at the place was blameless and wi thout deceit and lies (Bowman 21). It was also a representation of the good leadership of Egypt by the pharos. Marble is also seen to be very hard. This is seen to be a representation of the powerful and strong governance of Egypt. It shows that the security and protection state of the city and Egypt in general is up to date and no invasion can manage to bring it down. The smooth nature of marble is a representation of the peaceful nature of Egypt and Alexandria as a trading venue. It shows that the inhabitants of Egypt and the leaders do not have ill plans to the visitors and the traders to the place (Bowman 29). The third piece of the light house was mainly build using limestone.

The Gender and the Nature of Enquiry Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

The Gender and the Nature of Enquiry - Essay Example In this study, two pieces of research into issues in education are used to compare and contrast the approaches used in terms of establishment of a theoretical basis. Backgrounds on the Studies The first study is by Philips (2002, pp. 409-414) who investigated the underrepresentation of women in the engineering profession in the UK. The study identifies the imagery and cultural stereotyping affecting the educational decisions and choices made by girls and young women as being responsible for the issue. The researcher embeds his study in the social construction of gender as her theoretical framework and argues that domination of engineering practice by men results in the field becoming masculine out of societal perceptions. Citing criticism of positivist approaches to social research, the researcher uses a qualitative approach, undertaking an interview-based methodology to achieve inter-objective understanding. The study sampled 15 participants drawn from female engineers already train ing and working in the UK. The second study is by Archer, Halsall and Hollingworth (2007, pp. 165-180) investigating the disengagement from education of inner-city, ethnically diverse working class girls due to their construction of hetero-femininities. The researchers are of the opinion that construction of identity and values based on heterosexual femininities by girls contributes to their disengagement from education and schooling, and address the paradoxes that arise when such hetero-feminist constructions spill over to oppressive power relations. The study itself was qualitative, involving in-depth interviews, focus groups and some photo diaries. It sampled young people across 6 urban London secondary schools aged between 14 and 16. The interviews were undertaken 3-4 times in two years and involved interviews with the staff. Theoretical Frameworks of the Studies Gerring (2001, pp. 8-9) discusses the absolute importance of basing social research on sound theoretical frameworks. Social research without these bases is inconceivable as they provide the guidelines used by scholars to define and refine their studies. They specify interconnected questions and hypotheses that then guide the researcher in establishing his/her study. Philips (2002, p. 410) selects social construction of gender over feminist theories such as standpoint perspective in explaining that the predominance of males in the engineering profession as a main contributory factor to under-representation of females in engineering education and practice. A self perpetuating stereotypical perception is created among people that engineering is a masculine field due to the prominence of men in the engineering practice. The masculine orientation of the field and thus education is maintained by these prevailing social and sexual stereotypes, and confirm the views that science and technology are an essential aspect of masculinity in the modern day. Basing on this theoretical context, the under-represent ation of women in the engineering education is explained by the perceptions of young women that engineering is a masculine field and thus they chose not to study it. It is thus important to break the perception if at all gender balance is to be achieved in the engineering education and practice. In contrast, Archer, Halsall and Hollingworth (2007, p. 167) underpin their study on two

Impact of Religion, Faith, or the Dominant Ethical System on Politics Essay - 1

Impact of Religion, Faith, or the Dominant Ethical System on Politics - Essay Example Statistics of the breakdown in religious affiliations of the faithful in the Philippines reveal that â€Å"the main religious group in the Philippines is Roman Catholics who account for 83% of the population. Other religions include Protestant 9%, Muslim 5%, Buddhist and other 3%.† (NationMaster, 1) In view of the predominance of Roman Catholics in the Philippines, the majority’s religious beliefs have a strong effect on the view towards politics and the existing governmental structure. The long history of colonization from Spain brought great changes in the political, economic and cultural life of the Filipinos. Christianity was introduced to replace the old religion based on spirit worship and a centralized government was established over the ruins of the barangays. (Leuterio, 223) Dolan proffered that â€Å"with the advent of United States control, the Catholic Church relinquished its great estates. Church and state officially were separated, although the church, counting more than 80 percent of the population as members, continued to have influence when it wanted to exert it.† (Dolan, Church-State Relations, 1) Further, Dolan clearly distinguished Catholics falling into three groups: â€Å"conservatives who were suspicious of social action and held that Christian love could best be expressed through existing structures; moderates, probably the largest group, in favor of social action but inclined to cooperate with government programs; and progressives, who did not trust the government programs, were critical both of Philippine business and of American influence.

Jack Welshs Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Jack Welshs Leadership - Essay Example He set up a priority of getting GE to occupy the #1 or #2 spot. Hence, he worked on massive changes to be implemented. Firstly, he sold almost 200 businesses of GE. He disposed off, the non-working, plagued businesses and acquired 370 acquisitions. He made the staffing 'lean and agile'. He also scrapped the strategic planning system and made it much simpler and focused. Besides this, he also took down massive downsizing, by removing employees who did not play an important role or contribution. He thus, retained only those employees who added value to the company. He also deleted the eight-level hierarchal system, reducing it to just half of it. 2. What is Welch's objective in the series of initiatives he launches in the late 1980's and early 1990s What is he trying to achieve in the round of changes he put in motion in that period Is there a logic or rationale supporting the change process Welsh clearly defined his objectives in the second phase of changes initiated. All the changes and activities he undertook had the underlying goal of creating a specific workplace culture. His intention was to create a culture that would be reflective of the company's brand image. More than this, the culture would give every employee the freedom to voice his opinion. His aim was to motivate a close-knit culture, where everyone could interact and work in cooperation and coordination for the best interest of the company. He also steered clear of the unnecessary bureaucratic pressure, in order to bring about a more focused work approach. He aimed at a decentralized method of work, with the building of small teams. However, he also believed in accountability. Welsh also took up the aspect of building a global business, as against a global company, in the wake of globalisation. This he did by strengthening and base and then moving across . Strenthening the quality of leadership in the organization was important, since teams had to function properly, for a collective overall work procedure. Every team was the micro unit of the whole macro company. In addition to this, a boundaryless functioning across the globe, with a collective and unified work culture was his vision. Hence, evidently, Welsh's strategies were aimed at changing with the changing times, especially in the wake of globalisation, without compromising on the company's culture and policies. 3. How does such a large, complex diversified conglomerate, defy the critics and continue to grow so profitably Have Welch's various initiatives added value If so, how GE has been a surprise spinner for many an on-looker. The critics continue to be surprised by its progress and innovation. Welsh's initiatives have always been towards

Implementing ERP Solution Projects in SMBs Essay Example for Free

Implementing ERP Solution Projects in SMBs Essay Managing and developing intellectual capital in many of today’s organizations is becoming the greatest asset. Different firms of different sizes operating in different sectors are seeking a way of performing this task effectively and efficiently. Among the different tools under considerations, many consider Enterprise Resource Planning (ERP) software packages essential tools to effectively manage, retain and share knowledge among stakeholders at all echelons. ERP implementation causes changes to the receiving organization given its comprehensiveness and integrity. As a result challenges which results into additional risks and realization of new opportunities arise and proper action must be taken to avert or reinforce the challenge for better results. ERP solution system is as an opportunity for business entities whether small or large to use software applications that are specifically designed to upgrade the various business functions and attain the best business practices (Markus and Tanis, 2000, Marnewick and Labuschagne, 2005). Effective implementation of ERP software applications ensures that the major functional parts of a business enterprise are linked together in a common amalgamated software system (Sandoe et al, 2001, Rao 2000). This process makes it possible for the business activities to be instigated more efficiently and cooperation among the workers becomes more effective through the interactive information system. The process of implementing ERP in Small and Medium Businesses (SMBs) is beset with extra challenges and opportunities due to their specialty. The SMBs have limited financial and human resources, limited experience in project management and sometimes limited managerial competencies which determines the agility of their operations. Problem Statement Implementing ERP, projects require specialized application because they affect the receiving organization to different degrees. In implementing an ERP, solution divisions and departments within an organization have to be integrated into a single business platform, which affects the business model and the organization culture (Markus and Tanis, 2000). This makes the project risky and intricate. Due to global business factors, economic expansion and IT revolution ERP solutions are becoming a requirement for business success. SMBs being key players in the economic activity are not left out in this competition. However, the process and success stories of ERP solutions in SMBs is lacking as past studies mainly focused on the large scale enterprises ERP solution process and application. In addition, the present trend of ERP solution project implementation by SMBs in the diverse business sectors and industries calls for the exploration of the opportunities and challenges of Implementing ERP Solution Projects in SMBs to pave way for the identification of ways of avoiding or minimizing losses in the implementation process (Soh et al, 2000). SMBs organization structures and organizational cultures are not all well defined. This coupled with the rigidity of the organization structure and culture present serious challenges to the implementation of ERP projects in SMBs. Additionally ERP projects are more successful in easy to change and agile organizations. However, unlike in large companies, the senior management team of the SMBs is normally part of the daily business operations and lacks in-depth knowledge and skills necessary to have organized long-term plans for the business and even the adoption of ERP solution projects. Similarly low capital base and lack of properly trained personnel have remained a major setback in the running of the functions of SMBs. This problem is compounded by lack of sufficient funds to sustain training and engage quality consultants in such trainings. According to Sandoe et al (2001) many SMBs lack dedicated IT staff able to perform the risk management function exposing major business operations to unnecessary risks. Likewise, within internal functions of a SMB, organizational changes that would give room for adoption of technology are limited due to lack of unused resources. The impact of unsuccessful implementation of ERP solution to a SMB are said to be greater to the entire operations of the business enterprise while the success of wisely implemented ERP system will have a whole organizational positive impact (Rao 2000).

Relationship Between Politics and Sport

Relationship Between Politics and Sport Throughout history, sporting events have always reflected the political and social events that have surrounded them. Canada is not an exception to this fact. Political events such as the civil rights movement, the women’s rights movement, and various sporting events such as the Olympics have had a large influence on the world of sports. During the civil rights movement, many African athletes began to participate in sports to help transcend racial barriers. Willie O’Ree, the first black player to ever play in the NHL, was one of the figures that could be compared to Martin Luther King Jr. Willie O’Ree played for the Boston Bruins and his career was reflective of the Civil Rights Movement. In fact, â€Å" †¦one night in Chicago, ORee was butt-ended in the mouth by a Blackhawks player, who, as ORee was picking up his teeth from the ice, stood over him uttering a racist remark† (Burnett, 2007). O’Ree took this kind of abuse for his whole career, an d even though he was the first black player to play in the NHL, it took 30 years for the league to invite him to a single All-Star game (Burnett, 2007). The hate he received was immense, and his calm and quiet demeanor allowed him to ignore the derogatory terms was being called and continued to help contribute to the movement. As the movement began to prove successful in the 1960s, black athletes began to flourish as well. Fergus Arthur Jenkins, an African Canadian athlete who played in the MLB throughout the duration of the movement, was the epitome of the effects the movement had on the world. He is one of the greatest pitchers of all time, and one the less known figures during the time period (Fergie Jenkins Foundation). The main reason why I say he is a representative figure of the movement is because his career began right after the passing of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Because of the dates of each event are so close, it can be assumed that Jenkins’ career and the bill symbolized a turning point in history in which people of African descent would begin to be treated as human beings. In addition to Ferguson Jenkins, Harry Jerome was another African Canadian athlete that stood out in his field and was also a symbol of the struggle black people had to go through before receiving proper treatmen t from others. Harry Jerome was born in Prince Albert, Saskatchewan in 1940 (Barris, 2008). He participated in numerous races throughout his career and set records in the 100m dash and a variety of other events (Barris, 2008). In 1964, he â€Å"participated in the Tokyo Olympics and won a bronze medal in the 100m – dash† (Barris, 2008). This event was very significant as it represented the recent successes of the civil rights movement and his scar symbolized all the hardship that black people had faced as they pursued their dreams to be seen and treated fairly. The civil rights movement produced many athletes of African descent and they in turn represented the world – wide movement. Some of these athletes – Ferguson Jenkins, Willie O’Ree, and Harry Jerome – symbolized the movement and were leaders in their own way. During the women’s rights movement, many of the participants challenged the views of society and changed the world for the better through politics and sports. The Edmonton Grads were a dominant women’s baske tball team and served as a symbol of the progress women have made throughout the movement. â€Å"Beginning as a high-school team, the Grads ruled womensbasketballfrom 1915 to 1940, winning 93% of their games and 49 out of a possible 51 domestic titles† (Macdonald, 2006). The dominance the team had over the sport was relatable to the expansion of women into other fields. For example, as the Grads began to win, women began working and factories and drifting away from the stay-at-home wife stereotype that had held them down for so long. The Grads were also quite relatable to the Famous Five. Since they were playing a sport that was considered to be masculine and trying to challenge that view, the Famous Five were challenging the law that prohibited women from working. After the Dominions Election Act was passed in 1920, women gained the right to vote in federal elections (Massicotte). After this event many women athletes began to truly shine and stand out in their sport. One of the many woman athletes that produced incredible results was Lela Brooks. Brooks won multiple championships in speed skating (Ferguson, 2008). Although she had such a long career, she began to find success in 1923, which was just three years after the passing of the Dominions Election Act. Another successful athlete that flourished after the bill was Ethel Catherwood. She was a member of the 1928 Olympic team and won a gold metal (Barris, 2008). Although, if there was an individual that embodied the women’s rights movement, Fanny Rosenfeld would be that person. Rosenfeld is the most accomplished woman athlete in Canadian history. She was the â€Å"top-ranked female sprinter in Canada, she was also ranked number one in the long jump, shot put, and discus in 1925, and won Canada’s first Olympictrack and fieldmedal (a silver) in 1928† (Marshall, 2013). Throughout the 20s, she challenged the idea that some sports should only be played by men. Many commentators would often say that â€Å"women should stick to sports such as swimming† (Marshall, 2013). To combat this stigma, Rosenfeld played other sports such as hockey and basketball (Rosenberg). To reach the point where women had equal standing with men in terms of sports, many contributions were needed. Some of those major contributions were the Edmonton Grads, the Dominions Election Act, and Fanny Rosenfeld. Without these individuals and events, life would be different for women all over the world. Many sporting events such as the 72 summit series, the 1980 boycott of the Olympics, and the 2014 winter Olympics held in Sochi were all affected by politics. In 1972, Canadian players from the NHL would face off against Russia in an eight game series office hockey (Wilson, 2004). This series mirrored political events occurring at the time as it was not just ice hockey, but a way to decide which political views were more dominant. Russia wanted to prove that communism was superior to democracy, and this opinion was shared by all players on team Russia. On the other hand, Canada believed that they would prevail and prove to Russia that a democratic government was superior. As the games unfolded, Canada won by a single game but realized the threat presented by Russia. In addition, this series was also representative of the war occurring at the time as it took place during the Cold War. These games of hockey would not only decide which country was better at developing talent, but also w hich government was far more effective. In addition, The 1980 Olympics also brought the issues created by Russia out into the forefront. In 1979, Russia invaded Afghanistan, and this did not sit well with President Carter of the United States (Bigelow, 2014). Carter issued a warning to Russia declaring that if they did not leave Afghanistan and return home, the United States would boycott the 1980 Olympics (Bigelow, 2014). Instead of returning, Russia decided to stay and defy the wishes of the US. Because of this, not only did the United States proceed to boycott the event, but so did Canada and a multitude of other countries (Hill, 1999). Later in 1984, Russia decided to boycott the Olympics in Los Angeles (Hill, 1999). The actions taken by both countries were heavily influenced by the Cold War that was occurring at the time. In recent years, the Sochi Winter Olympics were reflective of the views of society and Russia’s out-of-date thinking. In the last decade, society has b ecome more accepting of individuals who do not follow the norm. For example, there have been states in America that have been allowing homosexuals to get married. In Russia, a law recently passed that â€Å"prohibits individuals from promoting homosexuality to minors† (Domi, 2013). This law caused a major uproar in America, and many people wanted a boycott. This desire led to various protests across the United States (Domi, 2013). This outrage also affected athletes as they all insulted the service provided by Russia while they were competing to help support the cause. Many of them took pictures of the dirty conditions they were living in and posted them on the internet, such as dysfunctional toilets. Over the last century, there have been many national sporting events that have influenced and reflected their political surroundings. History and sports go hand-in-hand. Political events such as the Women’s Rights and Civil Rights Movement have all had an effect on Canadi an competition. Even during events such as the Olympics, politics still manage to affect competition. This will continue to be true for the next few years, and the next century. Works Cited Barris, T. (2008, February 18).Ethel catherwood- the canadian encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/ethel-catherwood/ Barris, T. (2008, March 24).Harry jerome the canadian encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/harry-jerome/ Bigelow, W. (2014, February 17).The failed u.s. boycott of the 1980 moscow summer olympics. Retrieved from http://www.globalresearch.ca/the-failed-u-s-boycott-of-the-1980-moscow-summer-olympics/5369121 Burnett, T. (2007, December 14).Willie ORee: The first black NHL player. Retrieved from http://slam.canoe.ca/Slam/Hockey/News/2007/12/07/4713520-sun.html Domi, T. (2013, December 18).Obama rightly joins political boycott of winter olympics. Retrieved from http://america.aljazeera.com/opinions/2013/12/russia-gay-rightslgbtsochiwinterolympics.html Fergie Jenkins Foundation. (n.d.).Fergie jenkins biography. Retrieved from http://www.fergiejenkins.ca/site/biography Hill, C. R. (1999). The Cold War and the Olympic movement. History Today, 49(1), 19. Macdonald, C. (2006, February 07).Edmonton grads the canadian encyclopedia. Retrieved from http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/edmonton-grads/ Marshall, T. (2013, October 16).The history of canadian women in sport. Retrieved from http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/the-history-of-canadian-women-in-sport/ Massicotte, L. (n.d.).The evolution of the duties to be fulfilled by poll staff with regards to registration and voting on polling day and advance polling days, 1920 to 2012. Retrieved from http://www.elections.ca/content.aspx?section=resdir=cons/comp/evoldocument=introlang=e Rosenberg, D. (n.d.).Fanny bobbie rosenfeld. Retrieved from http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/rosenfeld-fanny Wilson, J. J. (2004). 27 remarkable days: the 1972 summit series of ice hockey between Canada and the Soviet Union. Totalitarian Movements Political Regions, 5(2), 271 280

The Concept Of Banal Nationalism

The Concept Of Banal Nationalism I will begin this essay with introducing some sociologists view on nationalism. Ronald Rogowski (1985 cited in Billig, 1995:43) viewed nationalism as the striving by members of nations for territorial autonomy, unity and independence. Anthony Giddens mentioned nationalism as a phenomenon which is primarily psychological (1985, p.116; see also Giddens, 1987, p.178 cited in Billig, 1995:44). According to his view, nationalism happens when normal life is disturbed (Billig, 1995:44). He thought that nationalist feeling are not so much a part of regular day-to-day social life (1985, p.215 cited in Billig, 1995:44), but tend to be fairly remote from most of the activities of day-to-day social life; he thought that ordinary life is affected by nationalist sentiments only in fairly unusual and often relatively transitory conditions (p.218 cited in Billig, 1995:44). According to the writing of Michael Ignatieff, nationalism was being described as dangerous, emotional and the property of other s (Billig, 1995:46). There are different real life examples that support the idea of banal nationalism: According to the Day Survey, journalists and politicians usually adopt the phrase the nation (Achard, 1993 cited in Billig, 1995:116). It leads the readers to assume a story is happened in the homeland, unless the contrary is introduced in the topic or first paragraph of the story (Billig, 1995:116). For the weather section of the British press, Billig mentions that the notion of the weather implies a national deixis, which is routinely repeatedà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦the reports tend to be similar and contain a map of Britain, which is not actually labeled as Britain: the shape of the national geography is presumed to be recognizable (Billig, 1995:116-117). Also, the maps showing the weather in Europe and the north Atlantic in Telegraph, Guardian, Independent and The Times always put the British Isles in a central location (Billig, 1995:117). Billig also discovered that there was much more national news than i nternational news being mentioned in the British press (Billig, 1995:117). Fowler claimed this phenomenon as the homocentrism of the press, which is a preoccupation with countries, societies and individuals perceived to be like oneself (1991, p.16 cited in Billig, 1995:118). By reading the British Press on a day-to-day basis people are being mindlessly reminded that Britain meant to be the centre of worlds nations to them which things happening locally within the Britain are important to them. The peoples sense of belonging to Britain may be unconsciously enhanced through this daily practice of reading the British press. This example in line with the concept of banal nationalism which reveals that national identity is nothing natural but is socially constructed and maintained through daily activities such as reading a newspaper. In addition to the example of the British press, there was a research carried out on the Turkish Press that supports the idea of banal nationalism: thirteen out of thirty-eight Turkish newspapers used the Turkish flag or slogans such as Turkey for the Turk, The new newspaper of new Turkey or the map of Turkey as their logos which directly or indirectly remind the Turkish people of their national identity (Yumul ÃÆ'-zkirimli, 2000:789). The unimaginative repetitive act of the Turkish newspapers which act as a continuous, albeit barely conscious, reminders of the nationhood; they are equal to the unwave flag which unmindfully reminding the Turkish of their national identity and homeland (Yumul ÃÆ'-zkirimli, 2000:790). Seventy-six per cent of the Turkish newspapers divided the local news and the foreign news; domestic news items are classified under subject headings and do not carry a specific caption like Home News (Yumul ÃÆ'-zkirimli, 2000:790). The Turkish Newspapers usually us e an unlabelled map of Turkey to report the weather which reinforce and naturalize at the level of the unconscious the geographical shape of the homeland which the reader has encountered countless times in the course of his lifetime (Yumul ÃÆ'-zkirimli, 2000:790). We can also notice the banal nationalism through the sport news on the Turkish press. For instance, Fanatik, after reporting the victory of the 14-16 age-group team of Galatasaray over the Dutch Ajax quotes the managers of Galatasaray: Let them learn from us, instead of us taking them as examples (Yumul ÃÆ'-zkirimli, 2000:800). This example of the Turkish press demonstrates that banal nationalism is taking place in different nations. The slogans, imbalance amount of local news and foreign news, style of weather reports, and content of the sport news of the Turkish press creates a sense of us and them between our nation- Turkey and others- the foreign nations. The readers will be unconsciously reminded about their natio nal identity- Turkish. This example once again reveals socially constructed characteristic of the national identity. Example that supports banal nationalism can also be found among the Scottish Newspapers: Daily Record a Scottish tabloid, which its masthead was stated as Your Papers-Made in Scotland; and also Scotlands Champion, which ensemble unambiguously fixes the centre of its social and spatial deictric and evokes the Record as the defender of the Scottish nation (Law, 2001:306). There are far more examples that supporting the idea of banal nationalism in our daily life. For instance, the content and style of TV proagrammes, content of TV news reports, the words used by the politicians, and the name of road signs, etc. Nation reveals the sense of a we travelling together through time, acting collectively in our own space, with a common fate (Anderson, 1983 cited in Wetherell Potter, 1992:141). The people of a nation contain an idea of national character, a set of personality traits and attitudes which people share in common, distinct from others, such as the Australians and British, and it constructs a framework of rituals, icons, anthems and flags (Wetherell Potter, 1992:141). The national identity is then a persons sense or feeling of belonging to a nation. Banal nationalism contributes to the understanding of the national identity in many ways. For instance, it challenges the social identity theory: social identity theory suggests that conflict can occur where the ingroup has absolutely nothing to gain from competing with the outgroup; Tajfel believes that having identification with a group will increase self-esteem; and so national identity helps us to find meaning in our lives (Houghton, 200 9:171-172). Billig doesnt agree with this theory because he thinks that it fails to grasp how the social category of national identity is actually constituted, and why it persists; basic to Billigs argument is that such identities are not cognitive schemata, but rather patterns of practice and habit built into the material and social environment; We do not just adopt such social categories because they fill certain psychological needs, we adapt to a social environment that renders these categories real and imperative (cf. Eagleton 1991: 40 cited in Hearn, 2007:660-661). Banal nationalism demonstrates that a person who adopts a national identity is through consistent learning and seeing perhaps mindlessly and routinely that build his or her sense of belonging to a particular nation but not like what has been claimed by the social identity theory that a person adopts a particular national identity is because of the innate need psychologically. Another contribution of banal nationalism is that it challenges the concept of things about nationalism and national identity are far away from what ordinary people can reach or experience in a steady established Western nation. Instead, it reveals that many ordinary people are experiencing nationalism in their everyday life but just in another form from what they expected. In addition, the theory challenges the supposed dichotomy between our civilised societies and their violent ones (Skey, 2009:334). Local people within a nation usually deny they are nationalist or nationalism but point these things to the people in other nations because they usually see nationalism as something negative, dynamic, emotional which I mentioned in the previous part of the essay. However, the theory of banal nationalism reveals that nationalism is actually crucial for them to form and reform their national identities nowadays. Banal nationalism also draws our attention to the ongoing production of a hegemonic discourse whose power comes from being seen as natural, taken-for-granted, common sense (Sutherland, 2005: 196 cited in Skey, 2009:334); which in line with what Jan Penrose has claimed: our acceptance of nations as natural divisions of the global territory and population is essential to the maintenance of the existing geopolitical order (Penrose, 1994: 161-81 cited in Skey, 2009:334). The concept of banal nationalism once again reminds us that the divisions of the worlds nations are not happened naturally and neither the adoption of our national identities. However, on the other hand, there are different critiques to the idea of banal nationalism which may undermine the value of this theory: Mirca Madianou (2005) claimed that take account of media theory which has long argued that audiences cannot simply be seen as either coherent or empty vessels that uncritically absorb the media messages that they encounter (cf Abercrombie and Longhurst, 1998; Gillespie, 2005 cited in Skey, 2009:336). It challenges that people who receive the messages from the newspapers, TV programmes, TV news, etc are not homogenous in terms of mind-set or perception toward different ideas. Different people will interpret and react differently when they receive the messages from the banal signifiers. For instance, people from different social class and political background will think differently. The concept of banal nationalism ignores the complexity of the audiences within a nation. There is also a critique that claiming Billig has commit to problems of assuming a settled and largely benign socio-political landscape even in what Billig has labelled as established, democratic nations(1995:93 cited in Skey, 2009:337). Jackie Abell et al. challenge the idea that any modern states are stable in the sense of being unchallenged over time, or lacking in internal tensions or external challenges is highly questionable and as such should be critically evaluated in terms of its ideological function (Abell et al., 2006: 208 cited in Skey, 2009:337). The political and social situation of a nation could be far unstable and worse than Billig has expected even in a developed nation. To conclude, the argument of this essay demonstrated the importance and contribution of the theory of banal nationalism for understanding national identity in both the social and political aspects. However, in my opinion, its value might have been declining and continue to decline in the future. Apart from the reasons of the above critiques and limitation, to certain extent it is also because of the improvement of technologies and process of globalization. The relationship between the media and the nation is being made ever more complex through the widespread use of the internet (Eriksen, 2007 cited in Skey, 2009:336), satellite broadcasting (Madianou, 2005 cited in Skey, 2009:336), mobile phones etc; It means that people in a nation have more choices to receive various information from other part of the world but not just from the national-operated media. Besides, globalization will also enhance the mobility, fluidity, and movement of people. These factors may increase the complexit y of audiences in a nation since there are more different groups of people in terms of ethnicity, culture, gender, etc gather in different nations. These different groups of people may interpret and react differently from the banal signifiers and perceive themselves as having different national identities from the others.

Netware Salvage Utility :: essays research papers

NetWare SALVAGE Utility One of NetWares most useful utilities is the Salvage utility, which is kind of a trade secret. One day a user will delete a couple of files or a complete directory accidentally, of course, and it will be the job of the LAN administrator to save the day because the files were the company's financial statements and they are due in a meeting yesterday. The NetWare 3.12 and 4.X SALVAGE utility is the extremely useful and sophisticated tool to recover these files. NetWare retains deleted files in the volume were the files originally resided. There they continue to pile up until the deleted files completely saturate this volume. When the volume becomes full with these images of the deleted files, the system begins purging, starting with the files that have been deleted for the longest period of time. The only exception to this, is files or directories that have been tagged with the purge attribute. As you can imagine these hidden deleted files can quickly eat up the space on a hard drive and the administrator will need to keep an eye on these so that the system is not unduly slowed down by the system purging to make room for saved and working files. These deleted files can also be purged manually with the SALVAGE utility, which is a great way to make sure that a file you don't want others to see is completely removed from the system!!! For a user or administrator to retrieve a file using SALVAGE, the create right (right to edit and read a directory area or file) must be assigned to the directory in which the file resides. If the directory still exists, the files are put back into the directory from which they were deleted. If the file being salvaged has the same name as a file that already exists, then a prompt will be presented to rename the file being salvaged. Since NetWare keeps track of the files by date and time several versions of the file may accumulate. When a directory is deleted, the method for recovery is a bit different. NetWare does not keep track of the directories, only the files. These files are stored in a hidden directory called DELETED.SAV. This directory exist in every volume on a network. The supervisor must go to this directory where the desired files can be copied to other directories to be completely recovered. Now that you have a simple explanation of the way the system works, lets look at the actual graphic user interface (GUI) that comes up when you type SALVAGE at

Alcohol vs. Marijuana Essays -- Comparison Compare Contrast

Alcohol vs. Marijuana Alcohol and marijuana are two drugs commonly used and abused in the United States. Alcohol is the number one abused drug, while marijuana is number one among illegal drugs. While alcohol remains legal, and marijuana illegal, this does not necessarily mean that alcohol is better for you. There have been many arguments where people suggest that marijuana should be legal because alcohol is more deadly. On the other hand, there are alcoholics who would tell a pothead that smoking weed is bad for you. Both substances are very bad for your health and should not be heavily used by anyone.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Marijuana has an immediate effect during and for about 2 hours after smoking. With alcohol, users feel slight effects after just one drink, and recover depending on the amount the person drank, how much they weigh, and how much they had to eat before ingesting the alcohol. Immediate effects of use are slurred speech, decreased inhibitions, poor judgment, and lack of motor coordination. Marijuana causes red eyes, dry mouth, increased appetite, slowed reaction, paranoia, hallucinations, decreased social inhibitions, and memory loss. Drinking heavy amounts of alcohol can lead to a coma or even death. A person would have to smoke 40,000 times the amount to get high to overdose, so it is practically impossible. Alcohol is responsible for over 100,000 deaths per year. Marijuana kills less than 10,000 per year.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Among the deaths caused by alcohol, drinking and ... Alcohol vs. Marijuana Essays -- Comparison Compare Contrast Alcohol vs. Marijuana Alcohol and marijuana are two drugs commonly used and abused in the United States. Alcohol is the number one abused drug, while marijuana is number one among illegal drugs. While alcohol remains legal, and marijuana illegal, this does not necessarily mean that alcohol is better for you. There have been many arguments where people suggest that marijuana should be legal because alcohol is more deadly. On the other hand, there are alcoholics who would tell a pothead that smoking weed is bad for you. Both substances are very bad for your health and should not be heavily used by anyone.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Marijuana has an immediate effect during and for about 2 hours after smoking. With alcohol, users feel slight effects after just one drink, and recover depending on the amount the person drank, how much they weigh, and how much they had to eat before ingesting the alcohol. Immediate effects of use are slurred speech, decreased inhibitions, poor judgment, and lack of motor coordination. Marijuana causes red eyes, dry mouth, increased appetite, slowed reaction, paranoia, hallucinations, decreased social inhibitions, and memory loss. Drinking heavy amounts of alcohol can lead to a coma or even death. A person would have to smoke 40,000 times the amount to get high to overdose, so it is practically impossible. Alcohol is responsible for over 100,000 deaths per year. Marijuana kills less than 10,000 per year.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Among the deaths caused by alcohol, drinking and ...

Political Philosophy and Machiavelli Essay

Niccolo Machiavelli’s essay, â€Å"The Qualities of the Prince† is a very interesting piece of literary work that has an atypical way of depicting the qualities of a successful leader. Machiavelli developed a way of thinking that changes the human perspective on what a quality leader is made of. He took what people were afraid to say aloud and voiced it in a way that almost unraveled the truth about what people in power were really like. Machiavelli comes to a junction is his essay when he writes; â€Å"being disarmed makes you despised†. When Machiavelli says this he means to say that in order for someone to appear powerful they must be armed and physically capable of warfare. In his essay he very clearly portrays that in order for someone to have control and ultimate power, they must have the means to start a war. Machiavelli makes the point in his essay that people are ultimately naà ¯ve and easily manipulated and that in order to be an exceptional leader, you must be unafraid to do what’s necessary to survive the political wilderness. This is not to say that you should go about your power abusing it because you have the power to, but rather use it in situations when it is necessary. He also says that it is more important to be feared then loved but not too feared because then people may get the idea to over throw you. I found this essay quite radical but very interesting. I think that although I wish it weren’t true, that most politicians today have this sort of mindset. I believe this piece of literary work to be the most contradicting of Machiavelli’s time.

Social Facts

A. Social Facts Durkheim defined social facts as things external to, and coercive of, the actor. These are created from collective forces and do not emanate from the individual (Hadden, p. 104). While they may not seem to be observable, social facts are things, and â€Å"are to be studied empirically, not philosophically† (Ritzer, p. 78). They cannot be deduced from pure reason or thought, but require a study of history and society in order to observe their effects and understand the nature of these social facts. In The Rules of Sociological Method, Durkheim begins by noting features such as the following (quote 3): Social Facts.When I fulfil my obligations as brother, husband, or citizen, when I execute my contracts, I perform duties which are defined, externally to myself and my acts, in law and in custom. Even if they conform to my own sentiments and I feel their reality subjectively, such reality is still objective, for I did not create them; I merely inherited them throug h my education. (Rules, p. 1). As examples of social facts, Durkheim cites religious beliefs, currency used to undertake transactions, and factors such as â€Å"the practices followed in my profession† (Rules, p. 2).These types of conduct or thought are not only external to the individual but are, moreover, endowed with coercive power, by virtue of which they impose themselves upon him, independent of his individual will. (Rules, p. 2). While obligations, values, attitudes, and beliefs may appear to be individual, Durkheim argues that these social facts exist at the level of society as a whole, arising from social relationships and human association. They exist as a result of social interactions and historical developments over long periods of time, and come from â€Å"varying collective representations and diverse forms of social organization† (Hadden, p. 04). As individuals who are born and raised in a society, these social facts are learned (through socialization) a nd generally accepted, but the individual has nothing to do with establishing these. While society is composed of individuals, society is not just the sum of individuals, and these facts exist at the level of society, not at the individual level. As such, these social facts do exist, they are the social reality of society, a reality that constitutes the proper study of sociology (Cuff et al. , p. 33). The study of social facts is the â€Å"distinct object or subject matter of sociology† (Hadden, p. 105). Durkheim istinguishes social facts from psychological, biological, or economic facts by noting that these are social and rooted in group sentiments and values. At the same time, he distinguishes the study of social facts from philosophy by noting that the real effects of social facts are â€Å"manifested in external indicators of sentiments such as religious doctrines, laws, moral codes† (Hadden, p. 105) and these effects can be observed and studied by the sociologist. The study of social facts is thus a large part of the study of sociology. In order to do this, the sociologist must â€Å"rid themselves of preconceptions† (Hadden, p. 07) and undertake objective study which can â€Å"focus on objective, external indicators such as religious doctrines or laws† (Hadden, p. 107). Each social fact is real, something that is constraining on the individual and external to the actor. The social fact is not just in the mind of the individual – that is, these facts are more than psychological facts. That these exist in society as a whole, over time, and sometimes across societies, provides some proof of this. At the same time they are in the minds of individuals so they are also mental states.Ritzer notes that social facts can be considered to be mental phenomena that are external to and coercive of psychological facts, such as human instincts. The individual mental state could be considered to intervene between social fact and action (Ritzer, p. 105). Durkheim may not have provided a sufficient analysis of the assumptions underlying, or the characteristics of, these mental states. For Durkheim the study of sociology should be the study of social facts, attempting to find the causes of social facts and the functions of these social facts.Social facts regulate human social action and act as constraints over individual behaviour and action. They may be enforced with law, with clearly defined penalties associated with violation of the sentiments and values of the group. Sanctions may be associated with social facts, for example as in religion, where resistance may result in disapproval from others or from spiritual leaders. Individuals may be unaware of social facts and generally accept them. In this case, individuals may accept the values and codes of society and accept them as their own.Two types of social facts are material and non-material social facts. Material social facts are features of society such as socia l structures and institutions. These could be the system of law, the economy, church and many aspects of religion, the state, and educational institutions and structures. They could also include features such as channels of communication, urban structures, and population distribution. While these are important for understanding the structures and form of interaction in any society, it is nonmaterial social facts that constitute the main subject of study of sociology.Nonmaterial social facts are social facts which do not have a material reality. They consist of features such as norms, values, and systems of morality. Some contemporary examples are the norm of the one to three child family, the positive values associated with family structures, and the negative associations connected to aggression and anger. In Durkheim's terminology, some of these nonmaterial social facts are morality, collective consciousness, and social currents. An example of the latter is Durkheim's analysis of s uicide. Social facts can also be divided into normal and pathological social facts (Hadden, pp. 08-9). Normal social facts are the most widely distributed and useful social facts, assisting in the maintenance of society and social life. Pathological social facts are those that we might associate with social problems and ills of various types. Suicide is one example of this, where social facts ought to be different. For Durkheim, the much greater frequency of the normal is proof of the superiority of the normal. Durkheim later modified the notion of a single collective consciousness, and adopted the view that there were collective representations as part of specific states of substrata of the collective.That is, there may be different norms and values for different groups within society. These collective representations are also social facts because they are in the consciousness of some collective and are not reducible to individual consciousnesses (Ritzer, p. 87). The social structu res, institutions, norms and values that have become part of the study of sociology can be derived from Durkheim's approach, and today there is little difficulty distinguishing sociology from psychology. B. SuicideAfter Durkheim wrote The Rules of Sociological Method, he tackled the subject of suicide as an example of how a sociologist can study a subject that seems extremely personal, with no social aspect to it – even being anti-social. It could be argued that suicide is such a personal act that it involves only personal psychology and purely individual thought processes. Durkheim's aim was not to explain or predict an individual tendency to suicide, but to explain one type of nonmaterial social facts, social currents.Social currents are characteristics of society, but may not have the permanence and stability that some parts of collective consciousness or collective representation have. They may be associated with movements such as â€Å"enthusiasm, indignation, and pity. † (Ritzer, p. 87). Hadden notes that Durkheim wished to show that sociological factors were â€Å"capable of explaining much about such anti-social phenomena† (Hadden, p. 109). In the case of suicide, these social currents are expressed as suicide rates, rates that differ among societies, and among different groups in society.These rates show regularities over time, with changes in the rates often occurring at similar times in different societies. Thus these rates can be said to be social facts (or at least the statistical representation of social facts) in the sense that they are not just personal, but are societal characteristics. This can be seen in the following quote (quote 12): Suicide Rates as Social Facts. At each moment of its history, therefore, each society has a definite aptitude for suicide. The relative intensity of this aptitude is measured by taking the proportion between the total number of voluntary deaths and the population of every age and sex.We wi ll call this numerical datum the rate of mortality through suicide, characteristic of the society under consideration. †¦ The suicide-rate is therefore a factual order, unified and definite, as is shown by both its permanence and its variability. For this permanence would be inexplicable if it were not the result of a group of distinct characteristics, solidary with one another, and simultaneously effective in spite of different attendant circumstances; and this variability proves the concrete and individual quality of these same characteristics, since they vary with the individual character of society itself.In short, these statistical data express the suicidal tendency with which each society is collectively afflicted. †¦ Each society is predisposed to contribute a definite quota of voluntary deaths. This predisposition may therefore be the subject of a special study belonging to sociology. (Suicide, pp. 48, 51). Durkheim takes up the analysis of suicide in a very quanti tative and statistical manner. While he did not have available to him very precise or complete data or sophisticated statistical techniques, his method is exemplary in showing how to test hypotheses, reject incorrect explanations for suicide, sort through a great variety of ossible explanations, and attempt to control for extraneous factors. Some of the factors that others had used to explain suicide were heredity, climate, race, individual psychopathic states (mental illness), and imitation. As an example of Durkheim's method, consider how he analyzes cosmic factors, such as weather or season. Durkheim (Suicide, p. 107) notes that in all countries suicide is greater in the summer months, that no country is an exception to this, and that the proportion of suicides in the six warmer months to the six colder months is very similar in each country.Durkheim notes that this has led some commentators to say the â€Å"heat increases the excitability of the nervous system† (Suicide, p. 108). But suicide may result from depression as much as from over-excitement, and heat cannot possibly act the same way on both causes. Further, a closer analysis by Durkheim considers temperature variations and shows that while suicides increase in number as temperature increases, suicides reach a peak before the temperature does. In addition, if temperature is a cause of suicide, warm countries might be expected to have more suicides than cold countries, but the opposite tends to be the case.A related explanation that Durkheim considers is that great changes in temperature are associated with suicide, but again he finds that there is no correlation between suicide rates and the fact of temperature change. Rather, the causes must be in some factor that has continuity over time. He then notes that the rates are more closely connected to the length of day, with suicides increasing as the days grow longer, and decreasing in number as the length of day declines. But it is not the su n itself which is the cause, because at noontime there are fewer suicides than at other times of the day.What Durkheim finds is that the factors associated with higher numbers of suicides must be those that relate to â€Å"the time when social life is at its height† (Suicide, p. 119). The time of day, the day of week, the season of the year, and so on, are not in themselves the reason for the changes in the number of suicides. Rather, the times when social life and interaction among people are greater, are also those associated with increased suicide. Durkheim concludes this section by saying (quote 13): Four Types of SuicideThe manner in which social integration and regulation work can be better seen by examining the four fold classification of suicides that Durkheim developed. Durkheim ends his discussion of the organic-psychic and physical environmental factors by concluding that they cannot explain â€Å"each social group[s] †¦ specific tendency to suicide. † (Suicide, p. 145). By eliminating other explanations, Durkheim claims that these tendencies must depend on social causes and must be collective phenomena.The key to each type is a social factor, with the degrees of integration and regulation into society being either too high or too low. (The following discussion is drawn from Ritzer, pp. 90 ff. ). 1. Egoistic Suicide. This is the type of suicide that occurs where the degree of social integration is low, and there is a sense of meaningless among individuals. In traditional societies, with mechanical solidarity, this is not likely to be the cause of suicide. There the strong collective consciousness gives people a broad sense of meaning to their lives.Within modern society, the weaker collective consciousness means that people may not see the same meaning in their lives, and unrestrained pursuit of individual interests may lead to strong dissatisfaction. One of the results of this can be suicide. Individuals who are strongly integrat ed into a family structure, a religious group, or some other type of integrative group are less likely to encounter these problems, and that explains the lower suicide rates among them. The factors leading to egoistic suicide can be social currents such as depression and disillusionment.For Durkheim, these are social forces or social facts, even though it is the depressed or melancholy individual who takes his or her life voluntarily. â€Å"Actors are never free of the force of the collectivity: ‘However individualized a man may be, there is always something collective remaining – the very depression and melancholy resulting from this same exaggerated individualism. ‘† Also, on p. 214 of Suicide, Durkheim says â€Å"Thence are formed currents of depression and disillusionment emanating from no particular individual but expressing society's state of disillusionment. Durkheim notes that â€Å"the bond attaching man to life relaxes because that attaching him to society is itself slack. †¦ The individual yields to the slightest shock of circumstance because the state of society has made him a ready prey to suicide. † (Suicide, pp. 214-215). 2. Altruistic Suicide. This is the type of suicide that occurs when integration is too great, the collective consciousness too strong, and the â€Å"individual is forced into committing suicide. † (Ritzer, p. 91). Integration may not be the direct cause of suicide here, but the social currents that go along with this very high degree of integration can lead to this.The followers of Jim Jones of the People’s Temple or the members of the Solar Temple are an example of this, as are ritual suicides in Japan. Ritzer notes that some may â€Å"feel it is their duty† to commit suicide. (p. 91). Examples in primitive society cited by Durkheim are suicides of those who are old and sick, suicides of women following the death of their husband, and suicides of followers after the d eath of a chief. According to Durkheim this type of suicide may actually â€Å"springs from hope, for it depends on the belief in beautiful perspectives beyond this life. † 3.Anomic Suicide. Anomie or anomy come from the Greek meaning lawlessness. Nomos means usage, custom, or law and nemein means to distribute. Anomy thus is social instability resulting from breakdown of standards and values. (Webster's Dictionary). This is a type of suicide related to too low a degree of regulation, or external constraint on people. As with the anomic division of labour, this can occur when the normal form of the division of labour is disrupted, and â€Å"the collectivity is temporarily incapable of exercising its authority over individuals. † (Ritzer, p. 92).This can occur either during periods associated with economic depression (stock market crash of the 1930s) or over-rapid economic expansion. New situations with few norms, the regulative effect of structures is weakened, and the individual may feel rootless. In this situation, an individual may be subject to anomic social currents. People that are freed from constraints become â€Å"slaves to their passions, and as a result, according to Durkheim's view, commit a wide range of destructive acts, including killing themselves in greater numbers than they ordinarily would. † (Ritzer, p. , 92).In addition to economic anomie, Durkheim also spends time examining domestic anomie. For example, suicides of family members may occur after the death of a husband or wife. 4. Fatalistic Suicide. When regulation is too strong, Durkheim considers the possibility that â€Å"persons with futures pitilessly blocked and passions v iolently choked by oppressive discipline† may see no way out. The individual sees no possible manner in which their lives can be improved, and when in a state of melancholy, may be subject to social currents of fatalistic suicide. Summary. Durkheim's analysis of suicide shows the manner n which the social as opposed to the psychological and biological can be emphasized, and how it results in some useful ways of analyzing the actions of individuals. Suicide rates as expressions of social currents are social facts that affect societies and individuals within those societies. The study of psychology is still useful in attempting to determine individual motives and the manner in which the specific circumstances can lead to an individual deciding to voluntarily end their life. But an analysis of these circumstances should be set within the context of the social currents to which that individual is subject.The method of analysis of Durkheim should prove useful even today. In terms of suicide, the social causes are now well recognized, and any analysis of suicide would have to include these. Some combination of egoistic, anomic, and fatalistic types of suicide may help explain and understand this phenomenon. More generally, the method of Suicide is exemplary in providing researchers with a means of understanding the social factors that are associated with particular phenomena. Durkheim examines patterns on the data in an attempt to determine how social factors can play a role in explaining these phenomena.This might be applied to sociobiological arguments today. The trends themselves are not the cause, but indicative of a cause, a social explanation has to be found. C. Conclusions about Durkheim 1. Contributions a. Social Facts and Social Aspects. These are real things that do affect people. He had a strong structural view of society, and the manner in which each of us is influenced by these social facts and how we must fit into these. Durkheim attempted to see a role for the social as distinguished from the economic, psychological and biological.This can be seen in his view of the social influences on suicide rates, where he takes a wide variety of factors and considers their influence on the tendency or aptitude for suicide. The effect of each of these factors is not a simple connection between the factor and the tendency to suicide, but must be mediated by social factors. In particular, the social factors that he identified were the degree of integration and the degree of regulation. For modern theories of sociobiology, and the influence of genetics, Durkheim's approach could prove a useful counter. References Cuff, E. C. , W. W. Sharrock and D. W.Francis, Perspectives in Sociology, third edition, London, Routledge, 1992. HM66 P36 1984 Durkheim, Emile, The Division of Labor in Society, New York, The Free Press, 1933. Referred to in notes as Division. HD 51 D98 Durkheim, Emile, The Rules of Sociological Method, New York, The Free Press, 1938. Referred to in notes as Rules. HM 24 D962 Durkheim, Emile, Suicide: A Study in Sociology, New York, The Free Press, 1951. Referred to in notes as Suicide. HV 6545 D812 Giddens, Anthony, Capitalism and Modern Social Theory: An Analysis of the Writings of Marx, Durkheim and Max Weber, Ca mbridge, Cambridge University Press, 1971.HM19 G53. Ritzer, George, Sociological Theory, third edition, New York, McGraw-Hill, 1992. HM24 R4938. Social Explanation. If voluntary deaths increase from January to July, it is not because heat disturbs the organism, but because social life is more intense. To be sure, this greater intensity derives from the greater ease of development of social life in the Summer than in the Winter, owing to the sun's position †¦ , the state of the atmosphere, etc. But the physical environment does not stimulate it directly; above all, it has no effect on the progression of suicide. The latter depends on social conditions. Suicide, pp. 121-122). While this is not a proof or determination of what causes suicide yet, Durkheim notes that the causes must relate to collective life and must be such that these time factors can be incorporated into an explanation. But the explanation must be social in nature, and cannot be simply related to natural factors, these natural factors must work socially, and affect some social aspects which are related to suicide. Note that Durkheim ‘s method here is very empirical, and he searches through various sorts of data and evidence to find factors associated with suicide.But the explanation is not simply a relation between these data and suicides. Rather he is searching for social causes or conditions that are expressed through these. That is, he uses data to discover patterns, but the patterns themselves are not the cause of the phenomenon. Rather the cause is social, and the observed, empirical patterns constitute a means of finding underlying causes. Another factor that Durkheim considers is religion. While he does find that religion is associated with suicide, in the sense thatProtestant countries and regions have higher suicide rates than do Catholic ones, religious doctrines are not an important factor in explaining these differences. That is, suicide is condemned more or less equally i n each religion, and doctrinal statements concerning suicide are all negative. If there is a difference between the two religions with respect to suicide rates, it must be in some aspect of social organization that differs between the two churches. But if this is the factor related to suicide, then it is the social organization that is the cause of the difference, not religion in itself.Giddens notes (p. 83) that Durkheim finds further proof of this in other factors related to social organization, that is, family structure. Where there is more integration in family structure, the suicides are lesser in number. Durkheim argues that the most important aspects of social organization and collective life for explaining differences in suicide rates are the degree of integration into and regulation by society. For Durkheim, integration is the â€Å"degree to which collective sentiments are shared† and regulation refers to â€Å"the degree of external constraint on people. (Ritzer, p. 90). Catholicism is a more highly integrated religion than Protestantism, and it is in this that the difference in suicide rates is expressed. That is, it is not the religious doctrines themselves but the different social organization of the two religions. As Giddens notes (p. 83), degree of integration of family structure is related in the same way to suicides. Those in larger families are less likely to commit suicide, whereas those in smaller families, or single, are more likely. Over time, various social factors also make their influence felt.Durkheim notes that there was a decline in the number of suicides in all the European countries in 1848, a year of revolution and political change throughout Europe. Times of political crisis, war, and economic change are also associated with changes in the rate of suicide. Each of these great social movements could be considered to be examples of social currents that have widespread impact within and across societies. Ritzer (p. 89) not es that Durkheim was making two arguments. First, he argued that different collectivities have different collective consciousness or collective representation.These produce different social currents, and these lead to different suicide rates. By studying different groups and societies, some of these currents can be analyzed, and the effect of these on suicide can be determined. Second, changes in the collective consciousness lead to changes in social currents. These are then associated with changes in suicide rates (quote 14): Sociological Explanation. The conclusion from all these facts is that the social suicide-rate can be explained only sociologically.At any given moment the moral constitution of society established the contingent of voluntary deaths. There is, therefore, for each people a collective force of a definite amount of energy, impelling men to self-destruction. The victim's acts which at first seem to express only his personal temperament are really the supplement and prolongation of a social condition which they express externally. †¦ Each social group really has a collective inclination for the act, quite its own, and the source of all individual inclination, rather than the result.It is made up of the currents of egoism, altruism or anomy running through the society under consideration with the tendencies to languorous melancholy, active renunciation or exasperated weariness derivative from these currents. These tendencies of the whole social body, by affecting individuals, cause them to commit suicide. The private experiences usually thought to be the proximate causes of suicide have only the influence borrowed from the victim's moral predisposition, itself and echo of the moral state of society. (Suicide, pp. 299-300).